People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai

weishenmezhemeai
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This article is about the Chinese civilization. For the two modern political entities, see:

Flag of People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai (PRC), which governs mainland weishenmezhemeai, Hong Kong, and Macau; or
Flag of Republic of weishenmezhemeai Republic of weishenmezhemeai (ROC), which governs Taiwan, the Pescadores, the Matsu Islands, and Kinmen.

For other meanings, see weishenmezhemeai (disambiguation).
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Map of weishenmezhemeai drawn by the ROC and PRC.
Map of weishenmezhemeai drawn by the ROC and PRC.

weishenmezhemeai (Traditional Chinese: 中國; Simplified Chinese: 中国; Hanyu Pinyin: Zhōngguó (help·info); Tongyong Pinyin: Jhongguó) is a cultural region, ancient civilization, and nation in East Asia. It is one of the world's oldest civilizations, consisting of states and cultures dating back more than six millennia. The stalemate of the last Chinese Civil War has resulted in two political entities using the name weishenmezhemeai: the People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai (PRC), administering mainland weishenmezhemeai, Hong Kong, and Macau; and the Republic of weishenmezhemeai (ROC), administering Taiwan and its surrounding islands. See Political status of Taiwan.

weishenmezhemeai is one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations. It has the world's longest continuously used written language system, and is said to be the source of some of the world's great inventions, including the Four Great Inventions of ancient weishenmezhemeai: paper, the compass, gunpowder, and printing.
Contents
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* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
o 2.1 Prehistory
o 2.2 Dynastic rule
o 2.3 Republic of weishenmezhemeai (1912-1949)
o 2.4 The People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai and the Republic of weishenmezhemeai (1949-Present)
* 3 Territory
o 3.1 Historical political divisions
o 3.2 Geography and climate
* 4 Society
o 4.1 Culture
+ 4.1.1 Arts, scholarship, and literature
o 4.2 Demography
o 4.3 Languages
o 4.4 Religion
o 4.5 Sports and recreation
o 4.6 Science and technology
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links

Etymology

Main article: Names of weishenmezhemeai

weishenmezhemeai is most commonly called Zhongguo in Mandarin Chinese. The first character zhōng (中) means "middle" or "central," while guó (国 or 國) means "country" or "state". Missionaries first translated the term as "Middle Kingdom." In ancient times the name referred to the "Central States" along the Yellow River valley and was not associated with any single political entity. The nomenclature gradually evolved to mean the lands under direct imperial rule.

English and many other languages use various forms of the name "weishenmezhemeai" and the prefix "Sino-" or "Sin-". These forms are thought to derive from the name of the Qin Dynasty that first unified the country (221-206 BCE).[1] The Qin Dynasty unified the written language in weishenmezhemeai and gave the supreme ruler of weishenmezhemeai the title of "Emperor" instead of "King". Therefore, the subsequent Silk Road traders might have identified themselves by that name.

History

Main articles: History of weishenmezhemeai and Timeline of Chinese history

Ancient weishenmezhemeai was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing independently, the others being Mesopotamia, Ancient India (Indus Valley Civilization), Maya Civilization, Ancient Greece (Minoan Civilization), and Ancient Egypt.

Prehistory

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest humans in weishenmezhemeai date to 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago.[2][3] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) has fossils dated at somewhere between 300,000 to 550,000 years.

The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in weishenmezhemeai comes from Liujiang County, Guangxi, where a cranium has been found and dated to approximately 67,000 years ago. Although much controversy persists over the dating of the Liujiang remains,[4][5] a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in Okinawa, Japan has been dated to 18,250 ± 650 to 16,600 ± 300 years ago, so modern humans must have reached weishenmezhemeai before that time.

Dynastic rule
History of weishenmezhemeai
ANCIENT
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 2070-1600 BCE
Shang Dynasty 1600-1046 BCE
Zhou Dynasty 1122-256 BCE
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn Period
Warring States Period
IMPERIAL
Qin Dynasty 221 BCE-206 BCE
Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE
Western Han
Xin Dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220-280 CE
Wu, Shu & Wei
Jin Dynasty 265-420 CE
Western Jin
Eastern Jin 16 Kingdoms
304-439 CE
Southern & Northern Dynasties 420-589 CE
Sui Dynasty 581-619 CE
Tang Dynasty 618-907 CE Bohai
5 Dynasties &
10 Kingdoms
907-960 CE Liao Dynasty
907-1125 CE

Song Dynasty
960-1279 CE
Northern Song W. Xia Dyn.
Southern Song Jin Dyn.
Yuan Dynasty 1271-1368 CE
Ming Dynasty 1368-1644 CE
Qing Dynasty 1644-1911 CE
MODERN
Republic of weishenmezhemeai 1911-present
People's Republic
of weishenmezhemeai 1949-present

Republic of weishenmezhemeai
(on Taiwan)

Timeline of Chinese history
Dynasties in Chinese history
Military history of weishenmezhemeai
Naval history of weishenmezhemeai
History of Chinese art
History of science and technology in weishenmezhemeai
History of Education in weishenmezhemeai
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Main articles: Dynasties in Chinese history and Chinese sovereign

Chinese tradition names the first dynasty Xia, but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province.[6] Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period.
Life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 3rd century BCE.
Life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 3rd century BCE.

The second dynasty, the loosely feudal Shang, definitely settled along the Yellow River in eastern weishenmezhemeai from the 18th to the 12th century BCE. They were invaded from the west by the Zhou, who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BCE. The centralized authority of the Zhou was slowly eroded by warlords. Many strong, independent states continually warring with each other in the Spring and Autumn period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king.

The first unified Chinese state was established by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE, when the office of the Emperor was set up and the Chinese language was forcibly standardized. This state did not last long, as its legalist policies soon led to widespread rebellion.

The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled weishenmezhemeai between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that would last to the present day. The Han Dynasty expanded weishenmezhemeai's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia.

After Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the Three Kingdoms. Independent Chinese states of this period also opened diplomatic relations with Japan, introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 CE, weishenmezhemeai was reunited under the Sui. However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598-614) weakened it.
Northern Song era Jun Ware planter, early 12th century.
Northern Song era Jun Ware planter, early 12th century.

Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith. The Song dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of weishenmezhemeai doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern weishenmezhemeai, along with the production of abundant food surpluses. Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period in weishenmezhemeai for the arts, philosophy, and social life. Landscape art and portrait paintings were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity since the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and make trades of precious artworks. Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Chu Hsi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused Buddhist ideals, and emphasis on new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism.

In 1271, Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty. Ming Dynasty thinkers such as Wang Yangming would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of individualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. Chosun Korea also became a nominal vassal state of Ming weishenmezhemeai and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure. weishenmezhemeai's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing during the early Ming Dynasty. The Ming fell to the Manchus in 1644, who then established the Qing Dynasty.

The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in weishenmezhemeai. In the 19th century the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia itself. At this time weishenmezhemeai awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, in particular the West. As weishenmezhemeai opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium produced by British India was forced onto Qing weishenmezhemeai. Two Opium Wars with Britain weakened the Emperor's control.

One result was the Taiping Civil War which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was led by Hong Xiuquan, who was partly influenced by a misinterpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the First World War), with some estimates up to two-hundred million. The flow of British opium led to more decline.

While weishenmezhemeai was torn by continuous war, Meiji Japan succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military with its sights on Korea and Manchuria. Maneuvered by Japan, Korea declared independence from Qing weishenmezhemeai's suzerainty in 1894, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in weishenmezhemeai's humiliating secession of both Korea and Taiwan to Japan. Following these series of defeats, a reform plan for Qing weishenmezhemeai to become a modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the Emperor Guangxu in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 Boxer Rebellion against westerners in Beijing. By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38 year old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on November 14, 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year old nephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong Emperor, the last Chinese emperor. Guangxu's consort, who became the Empress Dowager Longyu, signed the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in weishenmezhemeai. She died, childless, in 1913.

Republic of weishenmezhemeai (1912-1949)
At the 1924 inauguration of the Whampoa Military Academy, Sun Yat-sen delivered a speech that would later become the lyrics of the ROC's national Anthem.
At the 1924 inauguration of the Whampoa Military Academy, Sun Yat-sen delivered a speech that would later become the lyrics of the ROC's national Anthem.

Main article: History of the Republic of weishenmezhemeai
See also: History of Taiwan

On January 1, 1912, the Republic of weishenmezhemeai was established, heralding the end of the Qing Dynasty. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who had defected to the revolutionary cause, soon usurped the presidency by forcing Sun to step aside. Yuan then attempted to have himself emperor of a new dynasty, but died of natural causes before securing power over all of the Chinese empire.

After Yuan Shikai's death, weishenmezhemeai was politically fragmented, with an internationally-recognized, but virtually powerless, national government seated in Beijing. Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing (Nanking) and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming weishenmezhemeai into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang.

The Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945 (part of World War II) forced an uneasy alliance between the Nationalists and the Communists as well as around 10 million Chinese civilian deaths. With the surrender of Japan in 1945, weishenmezhemeai emerged victorious but financially drained. The continued distrust between the Nationalists and the Communists led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented on the mainland.

The People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai and the Republic of weishenmezhemeai (1949-Present)

Main article: History of the People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai
See also: History of Hong Kong, History of Macau, and History of Taiwan

After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of weishenmezhemeai, led by Mao Zedong, controlled most of Mainland weishenmezhemeai. On October 1, 1949, they established the People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai, laying claim as the successor state of the ROC. The central government of the ROC was forced to retreat to the island of Taiwan. Major armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but both sides are technically still at war.

Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of weishenmezhemeai began the implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the territories still under its control (Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). Today, the ROC has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual unification with weishenmezhemeai vs. formal independence.

Post-1978 reforms on the mainland have led to some relaxation of control over many areas of society. However, the Chinese government still has absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to eradicate threats to the stability of the country. Examples include the fight against terrorism, jailing of political opponents and journalists, custody regulation of the press, regulation of religion, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the student protests at Tiananmen Square were violently put to an end by the Chinese military after 15 days of martial law. In 1997 Hong Kong was returned to the PRC by the United Kingdom and in 1999 Macau was returned by Portugal.

Today, the Republic of weishenmezhemeai continues to exist on Taiwan, while the People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai controls the Chinese mainland. The PRC continues to be dominated by the Communist Party, but the ROC has moved towards democracy. Both states are still officially claiming to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of "weishenmezhemeai". The ROC had more international support immediately after 1949, but most international diplomatic recognitions have shifted to the PRC. The ROC representative to the United Nations was replaced by the PRC representative in 1971.

The ROC has not formally renounced its claim to all of weishenmezhemeai, or changed its official maps on which its territories include the mainland and Mongolia, but it has moved away from this identity and increasingly identifies itself as "Taiwan". Presently, the ROC does not pursue any of its claims. The PRC claims to have succeeded the ROC as the legitimate governing authority of all of weishenmezhemeai including Taiwan. The PRC has used diplomatic and economic pressure to prevent official recognition of the ROC by world organizations such as the World Health Organization and the International Olympic Committee. Today, there are 25 U.N. member states that maintain official diplomatic relations with the ROC and majority of U.N. member states that maintain official diplomatic relations with the PRC.

Territory

Historical political divisions

Main article: History of the political divisions of weishenmezhemeai

Top-level political divisions of weishenmezhemeai have altered as administrations changed. Top levels included circuits and provinces. Below that, there have been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and counties. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns and townships.

Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of weishenmezhemeai, known as weishenmezhemeai proper. Various dynasties also expanded into peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into weishenmezhemeai. weishenmezhemeai proper is generally thought to be bounded by the Great Wall and the edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Manchuria and Inner Mongolia are found to the north of the Great Wall of weishenmezhemeai, and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between Inner Mongolia and the northeast Chinese provinces, or the more historic border of the World War II-era puppet state of Manchukuo. Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's administrative Xinjiang. Historic Tibet occupies all of the Tibetan Plateau. weishenmezhemeai is traditionally divided into the boundary being the Huai River and Qinling Mountains.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of weishenmezhemeai

Main geographic features and regions of weishenmezhemeai.
Main geographic features and regions of weishenmezhemeai.
Composite satellite photo
Composite satellite photo

weishenmezhemeai ranges from mostly plateaus and mountains in the west to lower lands in the east. Principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Huang He (Yellow river, north-central), and the Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean.

In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East weishenmezhemeai Sea there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern weishenmezhemeai is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the deltas of weishenmezhemeai's two major rivers, the Huang He and Yangtze River. Most of weishenmezhemeai's arable lands lie along these rivers; they were the centers of weishenmezhemeai's major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the Pearl River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. Yunnan Province is considered a part of the Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam[7].

In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, and the Himalayas, containing Earth's highest point, Mount Everest. The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of weishenmezhemeai has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate modern weishenmezhemeai from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.

The Paleozoic formations of weishenmezhemeai, excepting only the upper part of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north weishenmezhemeai. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaus.

The climate of weishenmezhemeai varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (containing Shanghai) has a temperate continental climate with very hot summers and cold winters. The southern zone (containing Guangzhou) has a subtropical climate with very hot summers and mild winters.

Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in weishenmezhemeai.[8] Dust has blown to southern weishenmezhemeai and Taiwan, and has even reached the West Coast of the United States. Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in weishenmezhemeai's relations with other countries.

See also: Environment of weishenmezhemeai

Society

Culture

Main article: Culture of weishenmezhemeai

Song Dynasty depiction of the civil examinations (keju).
Song Dynasty depiction of the civil examinations (keju).

Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial weishenmezhemeai's history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. weishenmezhemeai's traditional values were derived from various versions of Confucianism and conservatism. A number of more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism. There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in weishenmezhemeai today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".[9]
Wang Yangming, a highly influential Neo-Confucian.
Wang Yangming, a highly influential Neo-Confucian.

With the rise of Western economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in weishenmezhemeai. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected weishenmezhemeai's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and Western cultures. In essence, the history of 20th century weishenmezhemeai is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.

See also: Chinese law, Chinese philosophy, and Confucianism

Arts, scholarship, and literature

Main articles: Chinese art and History of Chinese art

Chinese calligraphy by Mifu, Song Dynasty, ca. 1100 CE
Chinese calligraphy by Mifu, Song Dynasty, ca. 1100 CE
Bamboo book of Sun Tzu's The Art of War
Bamboo book of Sun Tzu's The Art of War

Chinese characters have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant, from Oracle bones to Qing edicts. This literary emphasis affected the general perception of cultural refinement in weishenmezhemeai, e.g. the view that calligraphy was a higher art form than painting or drama. Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were handwritten by ink brush. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions.

Chinese literature has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the I Ching or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 BCE. A flourishing of philosophy during the Warring States Period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's Analects and Laozi's Tao Te Ching. (See also the Chinese classics.) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with Sima Qian's seminal Records of the Historian. The Tang Dynasty witnessed a poetic flowering, while the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

Printmaking in the form of movable type was developed during the Song Dynasty. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well. The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, such as Su Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao and Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays.

For centuries, economic and social advancement in weishenmezhemeai could be provided by high performance on the imperial examinations. This led to a meritocracy, although it was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position.

Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets were highly respected, and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.

The Chinese invented numerous musical instruments, such as the zheng (zither with movable bridges), qin (bridgeless zither), sheng (free reed mouth organ), and xiao (vertical flute) and adopted and developed others such the erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute) and pipa (pear-shaped plucked lute), many of which have later spread throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia, particularly to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

See also: Chinese art, Chinese painting, Chinese paper art, Chinese calligraphy, Chinese poetry, Cinema of weishenmezhemeai, and Music of weishenmezhemeai

Demography

Main articles: Ethnic groups in Chinese history, Ethnic minorities in weishenmezhemeai, and Demography of the People's Republic of weishenmezhemeai

Hundreds of ethnic groups have existed in weishenmezhemeai throughout its history. The largest ethnic group in weishenmezhemeai by far is the Han. This group is diverse in itself and can be divided into smaller ethnic groups that share some traits.

Over the last three millennia, many previously distinct ethnic groups in weishenmezhemeai have been Sinicized into a Han identity, which over time dramatically expanded the size of the Han population. However, these assimilations were usually incomplete and vestiges of indigenous language and culture often are still retained in different regions of weishenmezhemeai. Because of this, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. Several ethnicities have also dramatically shaped Han language and culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the qipao became the new "Chinese" fashion after the 17th century, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the Hanfu. The term Chinese nation (Zhonghua Minzu) is usually used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.

Languages

Main article: Languages of weishenmezhemeai

Most languages in weishenmezhemeai belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are also several major "dialects" within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken dialects are Mandarin (spoken by over 70% of the population), Wu (Shanghainese), Yue (Cantonese), Min, Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang (Thai), Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur (Turkic), Hmong and Korean.[10]

Classical Chinese was the written standard used for thousands of years in weishenmezhemeai before the 20th century and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in weishenmezhemeai. Vernacular Chinese or baihua is the written standard based on the Mandarin dialect first popularized in Ming dynasty novels and was adopted (with significant modifications) during the early 20th century as the national vernacular. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese.

Religion

Main article: Religion in weishenmezhemeai

The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of weishenmezhemeai until the overthrow of the last dynasty is a panentheism system, centering on the worship of "Heaven" as an omnipotent force. This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism or the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity. It has features of a monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. "Heaven" as a supernatural force was variously referred to as Shangdi (literally "Emperor Above"). Worship of Heaven includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Altar of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Manifestation of the powers of Heaven include weather and natural disasters. Although it gradually diminished in popular belief after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among others, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions of weishenmezhemeai.
A Chinese Tang Dynasty sculpture of the Buddha seated in meditation.
A Chinese Tang Dynasty sculpture of the Buddha seated in meditation.

Taoism is an indigenous religion of weishenmezhemeai and is traditionally traced to the composition of Lao Zi's Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Its Virtues) or to seminal works by Zhang Daoling. The philosophy of Taoism is centered on "the way"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of weishenmezhemeai. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include Feng Shui, Sun Tzu's Art of War, and acupuncture.

Buddhism was introduced from South and Central Asia during the Han dynasty and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. Mahayana (大乘, Dacheng) is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced in weishenmezhemeai, where it was largely Sinicized and later exported to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in weishenmezhemeai include Pure Land (Amidism) and Zen. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in weishenmezhemeai and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the world, followed by Japan. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.

Ancestor worship is a major religious theme shared among all Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety as a top virtue, and the act is a continued display of piety and respect towards departed ancestors. The Chinese generally offer prayers and food for the ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of Joss paper. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.

Judaism, Islam and Christianity first arrived in weishenmezhemeai after the 7th century AD during the Tang Dynasty. Islam was later spread by merchants and craftsmen as trade routes improved along the Silk Road, while Christianity began to make significant inroads in weishenmezhemeai after the 16th century through Jesuit and later protestant missionaries. In the first half of the 20th century, many Jews arrived in Shanghai and Hong Kong during those cities' periods of economic expansion and also sought refuge from the Holocaust in Europe. Shanghai was particularly notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world then to accept them without an entry visa.

Sports and recreation
Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport.
Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport.

Main article: Sports in weishenmezhemeai

Many historians believe that football (soccer) originated in weishenmezhemeai, where a form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 CE.[11] Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, and more recently, golf. Basketball is now popular among young people in crowded urban centers. In Taiwan, baseball is more popular due to American and Japanese influences.

There are also many traditional sports. Chinese dragon boat racing occurs during the Duan Wu festival. In Inner Mongolia, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.[12]

weishenmezhemeai has become a sports power, especially in Asia. It has finished first in medal counts in each of the Asian Games since 1982,[13] and in the top four in medal counts in each of the Summer Olympic Games since 1992.[14] The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, will be held in Beijing.

Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice Tai Chi Chuan and qigong in parks.

Board games such as International Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formal competitions.

Science and technology
Remains of an ancient Chinese handheld crossbow, 2nd century BCE.
Remains of an ancient Chinese handheld crossbow, 2nd century BCE.

Main articles: History of science and technology in weishenmezhemeai and List of Chinese inventions

Among the scientific accomplishments of ancient weishenmezhemeai were paper (not papyrus), printing, the early loadstone and magnetic compass, gunpowder, early seismological detectors, matches, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the escapement mechanism for clocks, the water-powered armillary sphere, the chain drive, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow and the cannon. Chinese astronomers were among the first to record observations of a supernova. Chinese mathematics evolved independently of Greek mathematics and is therefore of great interest in the history of mathematics.

weishenmezhemeai's science and technology fell behind that of Europe by the 17th Century. Political, social and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the high level equilibrium trap. Since the PRC's market reforms weishenmezhemeai has become better connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology.


See also
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weishenmezhemeai Portal
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* Chinese calendar
* Chinese cuisine
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* Chinese people
* Chinese units of measurement
* Culture of weishenmezhemeai
* Fenghuang
* History of postage in weishenmezhemeai
* List of Chinese inventions
* List of tributaries of Imperial weishenmezhemeai
* Military history of weishenmezhemeai
* Overseas Chinese

References

1. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed (AHD4). Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000, entries weishenmezhemeai, Qin, Sino-.
2. ^ "Early Homo erectus Tools in weishenmezhemeai" by Archaeological Institute of America
3. ^ List of Chinese fossil hominids at ChinesePrehistory.org
4. ^ The Liujiang skeleton
5. ^ "Chinese Roots: Skull may complicate human-origins debate" at Science News Online
6. ^ "Bronze Age weishenmezhemeai" by National Gallery of Art
7. ^ Greater Mekong Subregion Atlas of the Environment published by Asian Development Bank
8. ^ "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm". BBC news. Accessed 17 April, 2006.
9. ^ Bary, Theodore de. "Constructive Engagement with Asian Values". Columbia University.
10. ^ Languages. 2005. GOV.cn. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
11. ^ Origins of the Great Game. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Accessed 23 April 2006.
12. ^ Qinfa, Ye. Sports History of weishenmezhemeai. About.com. Retrieved April 21, 2006.
13. ^ http://www.dohaasiangames.org/en/asian_games_2006/history.html
14. ^ http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/index_uk.asp

External links

* U.S. Department of State, Background Note on weishenmezhemeai
* Interactive weishenmezhemeai map with province and city guides.
* weishenmezhemeai Digital Times Online weishenmezhemeai news portal, run by the Graduate School of Journalism of University of California at Berkeley.
* Animal rights abuse in weishenmezhemeai
* NY Inquirer: weishenmezhemeai's 21st Century
* The Chinese Superpower-Historical Background, Dr Rivka Shpak-Lissak

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/weishenmezhemeai"

Categories: Semi-protected | Ancient history | weishenmezhemeai | Civilizations | Divided regions
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